Grapes of the North

Question 9: a) Reflect on our Field Study to Kelleris and b) discuss the important ways in which wine has and continues to play a role in human society and culture.

Believe it or not, Denmark produces wine. Yes, it's a little bit shocking. With a cold climate similar to Canada or Maine, it seems impossible that grapes are successfully grown in this tiny country. Indeed, the cold and rainy day of our field study was so wholly unimpressive that it seemed impossible that the stubby vines could have produced anything at all just a month or two earlier. Wine is traditionally most successful in Italy and France - not Denmark. However, due to modern innovations in vineyard science, it is possible (though difficult and relatively expensive) to produce wine in this northern european country. Commercial production wasn't actually legalized until 1999 but since then, the market has become significant. Søren Hartvig Jensen was one of the first winemakers in Denmark - he established Kelleris Vineyard in 2001, located in Northern Zealand. He taught us how the plants have been cross bred in order to thrive in a cooler climate, as well as avoid the fungal infection brought from North America. 

Kelleris Vineyard on a rainy November day.

Viticulture is no simple science. Rather, producing wine is incredibly complicated and demands a lot of patience. It is an ancient practice - dating back to 6,000 B.C. in Georgia. Wine was celebrated in Ancient Rome and Greece. Most notably, Dionysus is the Greek god (aka Bacchus in Roman mythology) of the grape harvest, winemaking, theatre, and festivity. Known as a jovial character, the fact that he was worshipped is a testament to the importance of wine in early Greek culture. Wine is also important in Christian religion as a symbol of the Christ's blood in communion. It is also included in Jewish religious practices. In fact, on Passover during the Seder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to dink four cups of wine. Islam is actually the only major world religion that doesn't value wine (alcoholic beverages are forbidden under most interpretations of Islamic law). 

Dionysus, Greek god of wine. 

It is actually encouraged to drink wine by medical professionals. While excessive consumption of alcohol is obviously detrimental to one's health, a glass of wine a night is generally acknowledged to have certain cardiovascular benefits. 

Of course, Denmark's favorite Christmastime beverage is mulled wine, or gløgg, so it is appropriate that Denmark produce some of it's own wine. Be sure to taste gløgg at the Christmas Markets all over Copenhagen or make some yourself with the recipe link above. Also try Æbleskiver, which is paired perfectly with gløgg. 

Gløgg and Æbleskiver, traditional Danish Christmas treats.

Sources: 
Photo 1 - personal picture
Photo 2 - http://cf.ltkcdn.net/wine/images/std/111009-417x288-Dionysus.jpg
Photo 3 - http://www.denstoredanske.dk/@api/deki/files/69952/=aebleskiver_B.jpg?size=webview

Modern Plants of Power

Question 8: Which are the ‘Top Three’ most important / influential plants of power today (and I don't necessarily mean by the amount or value produced). Justify and explain your answer.

If I were to answer this question in the most obvious way possible, I would argue that corn, wheat, and rice are the most important and influential plants of power. They are the grains that feed the world - providing an essential part of people's diet from China to the United States. However, there is a different interpretation of the question. Rather than focusing on the most-consumed crops, I will discuss three of the most interesting and controversial modern plants. I have chosen three incredibly different plants that are all important for a wide variety of reasons. 

1) When thinking of plants, a tree comes to mind or perhaps a flowering bush. People usually don't stop to consider the plants of the sea - such as phytoplankton and algae. The first of the most influential plants of power is marine phytoplankton. Marine phytoplankton is a micro algae which essentially feeds the entire population of the ocean. It actually makes up a quarter of all vegetation on the planet. Perhaps most importantly, it provides the earth with over 90% of it's oxygen. That alone makes it the most influential plant in the world. However, there is even more to it! According to doctors, phytoplankton contains all nine amino acids that the body cannot make. The essential fatty acids, such as Omega-3 and Omega-6, are also available as well as many more critical vitamins. If that's not enough to convince you that phytoplankton is important, I don't know what is!!

An image of microscopic phytoplankton.

2) On an entirely different note, I will now turn to a plant that has been a recent source of controversy in the world right now, Cannabis Sativa. I hardly consider it to be one of the most important plants in the world, but it is certainly a very hotly debated plant which makes it very interesting. Cannabis Sativa has a thousand different reputations. In days past it has been used for its oil and as a source of fiber. To some people, it is regarded as a dangerous substance akin to hard drugs such as heroin and cocaine. To others, it is appreciated as a recreational drug that is not detrimental or particularly beneficial for one's health. In parts of the scientific and medical community, it is heralded as a potential curative plant. All of these reputations are valid, though some are far more accurate than others. In recent years, the legality of cannabis has been contested around the world. For example; formerly, it was illegal in the United States. Today, drug laws are being debated in every state. So far, it is fully legal in Oregon, Washington, and Colorado. In California and several other states it is both decriminalized and it is allowed for medical reasons. For more information on legality by state, consult Wikipedia. The issue of legalization is a complex debate. On one hand, a multitude of people can benefit from regulation of the substance, and the state can benefit from heavy taxes on it's sale. Additionally, too many people are in jail for possession of small amounts and the U.S. cannot afford to keep them. On the other hand, you can certainly call into question the benefits of making recreational drug use more popular. 

All parts of the plants are used for a variety of different reasons.

3) Finally, I will talk about a plant that I don't know much about - Cassava. Nevertheless it is incredibly important, particularly Africa and South America. Cassava is a staple food; it actually provides a basic diet for more than half a billion people - or 1 in 14 members of the world population. Originally domesticated in Brazil, Cassava is still important to the region's cuisine. As a crop that does well in poor soil with limited rainfall, and can be harvested year round when needed, it is a critical source of food in the developing world. 

Photo sources: 

Photo 1: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Phytoplankton_-_the_foundation_of_the_oceanic_food_chain.jpg

Photo 2: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Cannabis_sativa_Koehler_drawing.jpg

Photo 3: http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/multimedia/archive/00369/118979221_Cassava_369115c.jpg

Food Insecurity

Question 7: Discuss the current threats and possible solutions to food security. Within your answer identify the problems associated with the possible solutions. 

According to the United States Department of Agriculture, food insecurity is a situation of "limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways." While their definition is somewhat convoluted, the basic idea behind it is clear: humans need a stable source of food. Unfortunately, the world has approached the next serious challenge related to food security due in part to accelerated global population growth and climate change. 

Today, food availability has decreased due to rising oil prices, land use for biofuels, water supply issues, and unprecedented population growth. As food has become increasingly expensive due to an increase in demand and lack of supply, people are suffering more and more from undernourishment. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has estimated that almost 870 million people were chronically undernourished in the years 2010-2012, or 1 in 8 people. 

Number of people affected by undernourishment 2010-2012 (in millions). 

As the population is projected to reach between 8.3 and 10.9 billion by 2050, it is anticipated that food security will become an increasingly dramatic problem. It is not only developing countries that are suffering. In fact, the United States has a serious problem with food insecurity, which is portrayed in the chart below. According to their data, only 85.4% of the United States is classified as food secure.

Food insecurity statistics for the U.S. from the Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Program.

Meanwhile in vulnerable regions such as central Africa and southeast Asia, a much higher percentage of people do not know when there next meal may be. For example, food insecurity has been identified as one of the most serious issues for Africa by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).

An image from the Africa Human Development Report 2012 - UNDP. 

What can be done to fix this devastating situation? Well, the UN's Millennium Development Goals for 2015 cover the broad necessity for aid. More specifically, it is important to preserve and protect the world's water resources, curb population growth through education and family planning assistance, and provide more international resources for aid.


Photo sources: 
Image 1: 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security#mediaviewer/File:FAO_Food_security_2012.jpg
Image 2: http://www.georgiadisabilitylawyerblog.com/091117-Food-FoodInsecurity.png
Image 3: http://www.afhdr.org/

Stolen Growth: Biopiracy, Then and Now

Question 6: Define biopiracy. Give two historic and one modern examples of this practice and briefly explain the impacts of the plant ‘transfers’.


Biopiracy is defined as, "the exploitative appropriation of indigenous forms of knowledge by commercial actors, as well as the search for previously unknown compounds in organisms that have never been used in traditional medicine." 


History's Most Thrilling Example of Biopiracy 
Historically, biopiracy has been significant in the spread of plant varieties across borders. Perhaps one of the most famous and thrilling tales of biopiracy is that of Robert Fortune and his adventures into China. The year was 1848 and The British East India company was immensely frustrated with the Chinese tea trade because China only gave up their tea for pure silver. The East India Company's solution to this economic dilemma was to send a "plant hunter" to China to travel in disguise and steal knowledge of tea cultivation and the plants themselves. With a shaved head and a large paycheck, Fortune was sent on his way. On his expedition, Fortune discovered the difference between black and green tea among many other local secrets related to tea production. Simultaneously, the East India Company was conveniently acquiring land in India that was perfect for tea cultivation. Thus began the British monopoly on tea trade, more than ever before. Today, tea is still grown in India and the industry is worth millions of dollars. Fortune changed the economic landscape of the world, but at what cost to China? 

Robert Fortune, "plant hunter."

Stealing to Save a Nation?
One very similar story is that of John Rolfe, who mysteriously obtained several tobacco seeds for cultivation in Jamestown, Virginia. At the time, Spain had declared a death penalty on anyone caught selling seeds to a non-Spaniard. However, Rolfe managed to steal the seeds of a popular strain being grown in Trinidad. To this day, it is not known how exactly Rolfe managed to get his hands on such valuable seeds. Perhaps what he did cannot even be described as biopiracy. What is known is that his tobacco saved the North American colonies, making the United States the economic power that it is today and no one in Trinidad benefitted from that. 

An image of John Rolfe planting tobacco.

Modern Biopiracy
Today, biopiracy is being fought in court all over the world. Too often, indigenous people are being manipulated by large pharmaceutical corporations. One such example is that of the Hoodia, a succulent plant from South Africa. In 1996 large corporations such as Unilever began developing dietary supplements based on the local knowledge of Hoodia's success as an appetite suppressant. The local people were to acquire none of the profits. Finally, an agreement was struck that locals would receive approximately 6% of the profits and put it towards purchasing new land, who had previously lost their land to white settlers. This exemplifies an excellent success story and nice win against biopiracy. 

The Hoodia plant.

For more information about Robert Fortune's thrilling story, check out this article from the Smithsonian.

Sources: 
Photo 1: https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1993/figures/v2-142a.gif
Photo 2: http://americasfirstentrepreneur.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/John-Rolfe-planting-tobacco.jpg
Photo 3: http://www.icecubediet.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/6187965079_630921c054_z.jpg